The study examined ecological and economic changes in Pamurbaya between 2015 and 2025. Using satellite imagery, spatial mapping, and ecosystem service valuation, the researchers assessed changes in mangrove coverage, vegetation conditions, habitat fragmentation, and the estimated economic benefits provided by mangrove ecosystems. The results suggest that the degradation of natural coastal environments can create economic vulnerabilities that are easily overlooked when development decisions focus primarily on conventional financial indicators.
Mangrove Degradation Creates Environmental and Economic Risks
Mangrove forests are important coastal ecosystems that provide several benefits to people and the environment. Their roots help stabilize shorelines, reduce the impact of coastal erosion, and provide habitats for fish and other organisms. Mangroves also store carbon and support activities such as fisheries and nature-based tourism.
However, these benefits can diminish when mangrove habitats are damaged by land conversion, urban expansion, pollution, and other human pressures. As vegetation disappears and habitats become fragmented, ecosystems may become less capable of supporting wildlife, protecting coastlines, and sustaining economic activities that depend on natural resources.
Pamurbaya is an important example of the relationship between coastal ecosystems and regional development. The area faces pressure from changing land use and urban growth, making mangrove conservation an important consideration in environmental management and economic planning.
According to Patiung and his colleagues, biodiversity loss should be understood as more than a decline in the number and variety of living organisms. It can also weaken the ecological functions that generate economic benefits for surrounding communities. When those functions deteriorate, the consequences may extend to fisheries, coastal protection, carbon storage, and recreational opportunities.
Satellite Analysis Reveals a Decline in Mangrove Coverage
The researchers used Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing to examine changes in the Pamurbaya landscape over a ten-year period. These technologies enable researchers to compare satellite images and identify changes in vegetation, land use, and habitat distribution across large areas.
The analysis reported several notable changes between 2015 and 2025:
- Mangrove coverage declined by 12.7%. The reported area decreased from 1,245.6 hectares in 2015 to 1,087.3 hectares in 2025, a reduction of 158.3 hectares.
- Vegetation conditions deteriorated. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), an indicator commonly used to assess vegetation conditions from satellite imagery, decreased from 0.62 to 0.51.
- Habitat fragmentation increased. The reported fragmentation index rose from 0.28 to 0.43, indicating a more fragmented landscape.
- The reported degradation level increased. The study recorded an increase from 18.4% in 2015 to 34.2% in 2025.
Taken together, these indicators point to substantial changes in mangrove ecosystem conditions. Reduced coverage and increasingly fragmented habitats may undermine the ecological processes that support coastal biodiversity and ecosystem services.
The researchers used these spatial indicators to assess biodiversity-related degradation. However, changes in vegetation cover and habitat structure are not direct measurements of species diversity. Detailed field surveys of plants, fish, birds, and other organisms would provide additional evidence about changes in the area's actual biodiversity.
Economic Value of Mangrove Services Falls by Nearly USD 5 Million Annually
One of the study's central findings concerns the estimated economic value of the ecosystem services provided by Pamurbaya's mangroves.
Using an Ecosystem Service Valuation (ESV) approach, the researchers estimated the annual value of selected mangrove benefits, including fisheries resources, coastal protection, carbon storage, tourism, and recreation.
The reported total value decreased from USD 28.76 million per year in 2015 to USD 23.84 million per year in 2025. This represents an estimated decline of USD 4.92 million annually, or approximately 17.1% of the initial value.
The losses varied across ecosystem service categories.
Regulating services recorded the largest estimated decline, falling from USD 16.85 million to USD 13.72 million per year. These services include coastal protection and carbon storage, both of which contribute to environmental security and climate-related benefits.
Provisioning services, associated with fisheries resources, declined from USD 8.42 million to USD 6.95 million per year. Cultural services, including tourism and recreation, decreased from USD 3.49 million to USD 3.17 million per year.
These estimates illustrate how environmental degradation can translate into economic costs. Mangroves provide benefits that are not always directly reflected in market prices. When their protective functions weaken or their habitats deteriorate, society may lose valuable services even if those losses do not immediately appear in conventional economic accounts.
The reported figures represent estimated annual ecosystem service values, rather than direct measurements of cash lost by local residents, businesses, or government agencies. They should therefore be interpreted as indicators of potential economic costs associated with declining ecosystem services.
Ecosystem Degradation Can Weaken Regional Economic Resilience
The study also examined how declining ecosystem services relate to regional economic resilience, defined as the capacity of an economic system to maintain stability and adapt to environmental and socioeconomic pressures.
The researchers assessed four dimensions: dependence on ecosystem resources, economic stability, diversification of economic activities, and adaptive capacity.
Between 2015 and 2025, the reported economic dependency indicator increased from 0.61 to 0.74, while the economic stability index decreased from 0.72 to 0.58. These changes suggest that the region became more vulnerable in the study's assessment as ecosystem conditions deteriorated.
Economic diversification capacity increased modestly, from 0.55 to 0.59. Adaptive capacity also rose, from 0.63 to 0.68. However, these improvements were not sufficient to offset the broader pattern of ecological and economic vulnerability identified in the analysis.
The researchers further used spatial econometric modeling to examine relationships among biodiversity loss, ecosystem service value loss, and economic resilience.
The reported model found a positive association between biodiversity loss and ecosystem service value loss, with a coefficient of 0.682 and a p-value below 0.001. Ecosystem service value loss was negatively associated with economic resilience, with a coefficient of -0.547 and a p-value below 0.001.
The model also reported a negative direct relationship between biodiversity loss and economic resilience, with a coefficient of -0.391 and a p-value of 0.003. An indirect effect through ecosystem service value loss was reported at -0.273, with a p-value of 0.008.
These statistical findings support the study's proposed ecological-economic pathway: biodiversity-related degradation is associated with declining ecosystem service values, which in turn are associated with weaker regional economic resilience. Because the analysis relies on secondary data and spatial modeling, the results should not automatically be interpreted as proof that biodiversity loss alone caused every observed economic change.
Implications for Coastal Policy and Community Livelihoods
The findings have practical implications for local governments, environmental agencies, businesses, and coastal communities. They suggest that mangrove conservation should be considered an investment in regional resilience rather than solely an environmental protection activity.
First, regional development planning can incorporate ecosystem service valuation when evaluating land-use changes and coastal infrastructure projects. Estimating the economic benefits provided by mangroves may help decision-makers compare development opportunities with the potential costs of ecosystem degradation.
Second, rehabilitation programs should focus on ecosystem quality as well as the total area restored. Planting mangroves may be insufficient if restored areas lack suitable habitat conditions, ecological connectivity, and the environmental processes needed to sustain biodiversity.
Third, livelihood diversification can help reduce communities' dependence on vulnerable natural resources. Supporting sustainable fisheries, responsible nature-based tourism, and other locally appropriate income opportunities may improve the ability of coastal households to respond to environmental changes.
Finally, community participation and long-term monitoring are essential. Residents who depend on coastal ecosystems can contribute local knowledge, help monitor environmental conditions, and participate in conservation programs. Combining satellite monitoring with field surveys and socioeconomic data would also strengthen future assessments of biodiversity and economic impacts.
Connecting Biodiversity Conservation with Economic Resilience
The study by Markus Patiung of Wijaya Kusuma University Surabaya, Sutanto of Universitas Pertahanan RI, and Asikin Muchtar of Universitas Indonesia Timur presents an integrated approach to understanding the relationship between mangrove degradation and regional economic vulnerability.
Its central message is that the loss of ecosystem functions can carry substantial economic consequences. In Pamurbaya, the reported decline in mangrove coverage coincided with a reduction in estimated annual ecosystem service values and less favorable indicators of economic stability.
For policymakers, the findings provide a reason to integrate ecological information into coastal development decisions. For local communities, they underscore the importance of protecting the natural systems that support livelihoods and provide protection against environmental pressures.
Further research using direct biodiversity surveys, household income data, and independently validated ecosystem valuation methods would help establish more precisely how ecological changes affect different communities and economic sectors.
Protecting mangroves is therefore not only about preserving coastal landscapes. It is also about maintaining the natural assets that contribute to economic security, environmental adaptation, and sustainable regional development.
About the Authors
Markus Patiung is affiliated with Wijaya Kusuma University Surabaya, Indonesia, and is the corresponding author of the study. His contact email is markuspatiung@uwks.ac.id. His contribution to this article concerns the economic valuation of biodiversity loss and its implications for regional economic resilience.
Sutanto is affiliated with Universitas Pertahanan RI, Indonesia. He is a co-author of the study examining the relationship between ecosystem degradation and regional resilience.
Asikin Muchtar is affiliated with Universitas Indonesia Timur, Makassar, Indonesia. He is a co-author contributing to the study of biodiversity loss, ecosystem service valuation, and coastal sustainability.
The supplied article does not specify the authors' academic degrees or detailed individual research specializations; these details should be confirmed from official institutional profiles before publication.
Research Source
Patiung, M., Sutanto, & Muchtar, A. (2026). “Economic Valuation of Biodiversity Loss and Its Implications for Regional Economic Resilience.” International Journal of Management and Business Intelligence (IJMBI).
DOI: https://doi.org/10.59890/ijmbi.v4i5.59
Journal website: https://journalijmbi.my.id/index.php/ijmbi
ISSN-E: 3025-5589
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