The study shows that even when ambient SO₂ levels remain below Indonesia’s official air quality limits, prolonged daily exposure can still exceed safe health thresholds for individual workers. As a result, many traders experience coughing, throat irritation, and other early signs of acute respiratory tract disorders that often go unrecognized as occupational health issues.
Air Pollution Risks in Traditional Markets
Air pollution remains one of the most persistent environmental health challenges in urban areas, particularly in locations with dense human activity. Traditional markets are among the most exposed settings, combining vehicle traffic, small-scale combustion activities, and long working hours. Sulfur dioxide, a gas commonly produced by fuel combustion and waste burning, is known to irritate the respiratory system even at relatively low concentrations.
In Indonesia, informal sector workers such as market traders are rarely covered by structured occupational health protections. Many work more than eight hours a day, almost every day of the year, in environments where air quality is rarely monitored from a worker-exposure perspective. This makes them especially vulnerable to pollutants like SO₂, which can accumulate in the body through repeated daily exposure.
How the Research Was Conducted
The research team carried out fieldwork at Pinasungkulan Market in Manado between November and December 2025. They observed 50 traders who met the criteria of working at least eight hours per day on a regular basis. Air quality measurements were taken at several points in the market during morning, afternoon, and evening periods to capture real-time variations in SO₂ levels.
Instead of focusing only on ambient air standards, the researchers calculated individual health risk levels using an environmental health risk analysis approach. This method considers how much polluted air a person actually inhales, taking into account body weight, working hours, and frequency of exposure. The result is expressed as a Risk Quotient (RQ), a value that indicates whether exposure exceeds the level considered safe for human health.
In addition to air measurements, traders were interviewed about respiratory symptoms such as coughing, throat irritation, and breathing discomfort experienced during or after work.
Key Findings: Most Traders Exceed Safe Exposure Levels
The study found that the average real-time SO₂ concentration in the market was well below the national air quality limit. However, when individual exposure was calculated, the results told a different story.
Key findings include:
· The average real-time Risk Quotient (RQ) for traders was 1.26, exceeding the safe reference level.
· Seventy percent of traders had an RQ greater than 1, indicating exposure levels that pose a health risk.
· Twenty percent of traders were in a high-risk category, with RQ values above 1.5.
· Traders reported frequent symptoms such as coughing, itchy or dry throat, and respiratory discomfort, especially after long working hours.
The main source of SO₂ was not constant vehicle traffic but sporadic waste burning within and around the market area. Burning plastic and mixed waste caused short-term spikes in SO₂ concentration, creating acute exposure peaks for traders working nearby.
Long Working Hours Increase Vulnerability
The worker profiles revealed why the risk was so pronounced. On average, traders worked more than 13 hours per day and nearly every day of the year. Many had been operating in the same market for over two decades. This combination of long daily exposure and many years of work significantly increases cumulative health risk, even when pollution levels appear moderate.
Low wind speeds in parts of the market further worsened conditions by allowing pollutants to linger rather than disperse. As a result, traders were continuously breathing polluted air throughout their shifts.
Health Implications and Real-World Impact
Sulfur dioxide is highly irritating to the upper respiratory tract. Once inhaled, it can trigger inflammation in the nose, throat, and airways. According to the researchers, exposure levels found among Pinasungkulan Market traders are consistent with symptoms such as coughing, throat irritation, and breathing difficulty.
Oksfriani Jufri Sumampouw from Sam Ratulangi University emphasized that these symptoms are often dismissed as routine discomfort. In reality, they reflect early-stage occupational health risks that can worsen without intervention. “Informal workers tend to normalize respiratory complaints, even when they are directly linked to workplace exposure,” she noted in an academic paraphrase of the study’s findings.
The implications extend beyond individual health. Reduced respiratory health can lower productivity, increase healthcare costs, and place additional pressure on local health systems. For policymakers, the findings highlight a gap between environmental standards and actual worker safety.
Practical Recommendations for Prevention
The researchers stress that prevention must focus on workplace-specific solutions rather than general air quality policies. Recommended actions include:
- Strict control and supervision of waste burning in market areas.
- Improved waste collection systems to eliminate the need for on-site incineration.
- Zoning and rotation of traders to reduce exposure in high-risk areas.
- Provision of proper respiratory protective equipment designed to filter acidic gases like SO₂.
· Basic occupational health education to help traders recognize early warning signs of respiratory problems.
These measures could significantly reduce health risks without disrupting market activities.
Author Profiles
· Verra Tapi, S.KM – Environmental Health Researcher, Sam Ratulangi University
· Oksfriani Jufri Sumampouw, S.KM., M.Kes – Lecturer in Environmental and Occupational Health, Sam Ratulangi University
· Jehosua Samratson Victor Sinolungan, S.KM – Public Health Researcher, Sam Ratulangi University
· Jimmy Posangi, S.KM., M.Kes – Environmental Health Specialist, Sam Ratulangi University
· Zetly Estevanus Tamod, S.KM., M.Kes – Occupational Health Expert, Sam Ratulangi University
Source
Article title: Risk of Acute Respiratory Tract Disorders Related to Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂) Exposure in Informal Sector Workers
Journal: International Journal of Natural and Health Sciences
Year: 2026
DOI: https://doi.org/10.59890/ijnhs.v4i1.159
Official URL: https://aprmultitechpublisher.my.id/index.php/ijnhs/submissions
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